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- An accelerometer is a device that measures proper acceleration. Proper acceleration, being the. By contrast, accelerometers in free fall (falling toward the center of the Earth at a. Machines – inside a building or in the surrounding area; Construction work. Smartphones also have ACN software available for download.
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An accelerometer is a device that measures proper acceleration.[1] Proper acceleration, being the acceleration (or rate of change of velocity) of a body in its own instantaneous rest frame,[2] is not the same as coordinate acceleration, being the acceleration in a fixed coordinate system. For example, an accelerometer at rest on the surface of the Earth will measure an acceleration due to Earth's gravity, straight upwards (by definition) of g ≈ 9.81 m/s2. By contrast, accelerometers in free fall (falling toward the center of the Earth at a rate of about 9.81 m/s2) will measure zero.
Accelerometers have multiple applications in industry and science. Highly sensitive accelerometers are components of inertial navigation systems for aircraft and missiles. Accelerometers are used to detect and monitor vibration in rotating machinery. The amazing spider man apk free download. Accelerometers are used in tablet computers and digital cameras so that images on screens are always displayed upright. Accelerometers are used in drones for flight stabilisation. Coordinated accelerometers can be used to measure differences in proper acceleration, particularly gravity, over their separation in space; i.e., gradient of the gravitational field. This gravity gradiometry is useful because absolute gravity is a weak effect and depends on local density of the Earth which is quite variable.
Civil Engineering Questions and Answers PDF Free Download - Preparation for EngineeringFull description. Building Construction Illustrated 4th Edition.
Single- and multi-axis models of accelerometer are available to detect magnitude and direction of the proper acceleration, as a vector quantity, and can be used to sense orientation (because direction of weight changes), coordinate acceleration, vibration, shock, and falling in a resistive medium (a case where the proper acceleration changes, since it starts at zero, then increases). Micromachined microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) accelerometers are increasingly present in portable electronic devices and video game controllers, to detect the position of the device or provide for game input.
- 3Applications
- 3.9Consumer electronics
Physical principles[edit]
An accelerometer measures proper acceleration, which is the acceleration it experiences relative to freefall and is the acceleration felt by people and objects.[2] Put another way, at any point in spacetime the equivalence principle guarantees the existence of a local inertial frame, and an accelerometer measures the acceleration relative to that frame.[3] Such accelerations are popularly denoted g-force; i.e., in comparison to standard gravity.
An accelerometer at rest relative to the Earth's surface will indicate approximately 1 g upwards, because any point on the Earth's surface is accelerating upwards relative to the local inertial frame (the frame of a freely falling object near the surface). To obtain the acceleration due to motion with respect to the Earth, this 'gravity offset' must be subtracted and corrections made for effects caused by the Earth's rotation relative to the inertial frame.
The reason for the appearance of a gravitational offset is Einstein's equivalence principle,[4] which states that the effects of gravity on an object are indistinguishable from acceleration. Salt and sanctuary original soundtrack download torrent. When held fixed in a gravitational field by, for example, applying a ground reaction force or an equivalent upward thrust, the reference frame for an accelerometer (its own casing) accelerates upwards with respect to a free-falling reference frame. The effects of this acceleration are indistinguishable from any other acceleration experienced by the instrument, so that an accelerometer cannot detect the difference between sitting in a rocket on the launch pad, and being in the same rocket in deep space while it uses its engines to accelerate at 1 g. For similar reasons, an accelerometer will read zero during any type of free fall. This includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space far from any mass, a spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic 'zero-g' arc, or any free-fall in vacuum. Another example is free-fall at a sufficiently high altitude that atmospheric effects can be neglected.
However this does not include a (non-free) fall in which air resistance produces drag forces that reduce the acceleration, until constant terminal velocity is reached. At terminal velocity the accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards. For the same reason a skydiver, upon reaching terminal velocity, does not feel as though he or she were in 'free-fall', but rather experiences a feeling similar to being supported (at 1 g) on a 'bed' of uprushing air.
Acceleration is quantified in the SI unit metres per second per second (m/s2), in the cgs unit gal (Gal), or popularly in terms of standard gravity (g).
For the practical purpose of finding the acceleration of objects with respect to the Earth, such as for use in an inertial navigation system, a knowledge of local gravity is required. This can be obtained either by calibrating the device at rest,[5] or from a known model of gravity at the approximate current position.
Structure[edit]
Conceptually, an accelerometer behaves as a damped mass on a spring. When the accelerometer experiences an acceleration, the mass is displaced to the point that the spring is able to accelerate the mass at the same rate as the casing. The displacement is then measured to give the acceleration.
In commercial devices, piezoelectric, piezoresistive and capacitive components are commonly used to convert the mechanical motion into an electrical signal. Piezoelectric accelerometers rely on piezoceramics (e.g. lead zirconate titanate) or single crystals (e.g. quartz, tourmaline). They are unmatched in terms of their upper frequency range, low packaged weight and high temperature range. Piezoresistive accelerometers are preferred in high shock applications. Capacitive accelerometers typically use a silicon micro-machined sensing element. Their performance is superior in the low frequency range and they can be operated in servo mode to achieve high stability and linearity.
Modern accelerometers are often small micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), and are indeed the simplest MEMS devices possible, consisting of little more than a cantilever beam with a proof mass (also known as seismic mass). Damping results from the residual gas sealed in the device. As long as the Q-factor is not too low, damping does not result in a lower sensitivity.
Under the influence of external accelerations the proof mass deflects from its neutral position. This deflection is measured in an analog or digital manner. Most commonly, the capacitance between a set of fixed beams and a set of beams attached to the proof mass is measured. This method is simple, reliable, and inexpensive. Integrating piezoresistors in the springs to detect spring deformation, and thus deflection, is a good alternative, although a few more process steps are needed during the fabrication sequence. For very high sensitivities quantum tunneling is also used; this requires a dedicated process making it very expensive. Optical measurement has been demonstrated on laboratory scale.
Another, relatively new type of MEMS-based accelerometer is a thermal (or convective) accelerometer[6] that contains a small heater at the bottom of a very small dome, which heats the air/fluid inside the dome, producing a thermal bubble that acts as the proof mass. An accompanying temperature sensor (like thermistor; or thermopile) in the dome is used to determine the temperature profile inside the dome, hence, letting us know the location of the heated bubble within the dome. Now, due to any applied acceleration, there occurs a physical displacement of the thermal bubble and it gets deflected off its center position within the dome. Measuring this displacement, the acceleration applied to the sensor can be measured. Due to the absence of solid proof mass, thermal accelerometers yields high shock survival rating.
Most micromechanical accelerometers operate in-plane, that is, they are designed to be sensitive only to a direction in the plane of the die. By integrating two devices perpendicularly on a single die a two-axis accelerometer can be made. By adding another out-of-plane device, three axes can be measured. Such a combination may have much lower misalignment error than three discrete models combined after packaging.
Micromechanical accelerometers are available in a wide variety of measuring ranges, reaching up to thousands of g's. The designer must make a compromise between sensitivity and the maximum acceleration that can be measured.
Applications[edit]
Engineering[edit]
Accelerometers can be used to measure vehicle acceleration.Accelerometers can be used to measure vibration on cars, machines, buildings, process control systems and safety installations. They can also be used to measure seismic activity, inclination, machine vibration, dynamic distance and speed with or without the influence of gravity. Applications for accelerometers that measure gravity, wherein an accelerometer is specifically configured for use in gravimetry, are called gravimeters.
Notebook computers equipped with accelerometers can contribute to the Quake-Catcher Network (QCN), a BOINC project aimed at scientific research of earthquakes.[7]
Biology[edit]
Accelerometers are also increasingly used in the biological sciences. High frequency recordings of bi-axial[8] or tri-axial acceleration[9] allows the discrimination of behavioral patterns while animals are out of sight. Furthermore, recordings of acceleration allow researchers to quantify the rate at which an animal is expending energy in the wild, by either determination of limb-stroke frequency[10] or measures such as overall dynamic body acceleration[11] Such approaches have mostly been adopted by marine scientists due to an inability to study animals in the wild using visual observations, however an increasing number of terrestrial biologists are adopting similar approaches.
Industry[edit]
Accelerometers are also used for machinery health monitoring to report the vibration and its changes in time of shafts at the bearings of rotating equipment such as turbines, pumps,[12] fans,[13] rollers,[14]compressors,[15][16] or bearing fault[17]which, if not attended to promptly, can lead to costly repairs. Accelerometer vibration data allows the user to monitor machines and detect these faults before the rotating equipment fails completely.
Building and structural monitoring[edit]
Accelerometers are used to measure the motion and vibration of a structure that is exposed to dynamic loads.[18] Dynamic loads originate from a variety of sources including:
- Human activities – walking, running, dancing or skipping
- Working machines – inside a building or in the surrounding area
- Construction work – driving piles, demolition, drilling and excavating
- Moving loads on bridges
- Vehicle collisions
- Impact loads – falling debris
- Concussion loads – internal and external explosions
- Collapse of structural elements
- Wind loads and wind gusts
- Air blast pressure
- Loss of support because of ground failure
- Earthquakes and aftershocks
Under structural applications, measuring and recording how a structure dynamically responds to these inputs is critical for assessing the safety and viability of a structure. This type of monitoring is called Health Monitoring, which usually involves other types of instruments, such as displacement sensors -Potentiometers, LVDTs, etc.- deformation sensors -Strain Gauges, Extensometers-, load sensors -Load Cells, Piezo-Electric Sensors- among others.
Medical applications[edit]
Zoll's AED Plus uses CPR-D•padz which contain an accelerometer to measure the depth of CPR chest compressions.
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Within the last several years, several companies have produced and marketed sports watches for runners that include footpods, containing accelerometers to help determine the speed and distance for the runner wearing the unit.
In Belgium, accelerometer-based step counters are promoted by the government to encourage people to walk a few thousand steps each day.
Herman Digital Trainer uses accelerometers to measure strike force in physical training.[19][20]
It has been suggested to build football helmets with accelerometers in order to measure the impact of head collisions.[21]
Accelerometers have been used to calculate gait parameters, such as stance and swing phase. This kind of sensor can be used to measure or monitor people.[22][23]
Navigation[edit]
An inertial navigation system is a navigation aid that uses a computer and motion sensors (accelerometers) to continuously calculate via dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for external references. Other terms used to refer to inertial navigation systems or closely related devices include inertial guidance system, inertial reference platform, and many other variations.
An accelerometer alone is unsuitable to determine changes in altitude over distances where the vertical decrease of gravity is significant, such as for aircraft and rockets. In the presence of a gravitational gradient, the calibration and data reduction process is numerically unstable.[24][25]
Transport[edit]
Accelerometers are used to detect apogee in both professional[26] and in amateur[27] rocketry.
Accelerometers are also being used in Intelligent Compaction rollers. Accelerometers are used alongside gyroscopes in inertial navigation systems.[28]
One of the most common uses for MEMS accelerometers is in airbag deployment systems for modern automobiles. In this case, the accelerometers are used to detect the rapid negative acceleration of the vehicle to determine when a collision has occurred and the severity of the collision. Another common automotive use is in electronic stability control systems, which use a lateral accelerometer to measure cornering forces. The widespread use of accelerometers in the automotive industry has pushed their cost down dramatically.[29] Another automotive application is the monitoring of noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH), conditions that cause discomfort for drivers and passengers and may also be indicators of mechanical faults.
Tilting trains use accelerometers and gyroscopes to calculate the required tilt.[30]
Volcanology[edit]
Modern electronic accelerometers are used in remote sensing devices intended for the monitoring of active volcanoes to detect the motion of magma.[31]
Consumer electronics[edit]
Accelerometers are increasingly being incorporated into personal electronic devices to detect the orientation of the device, for example, a display screen.
A free-fall sensor (FFS) is an accelerometer used to detect if a system has been dropped and is falling. It can then apply safety measures such as parking the head of a hard disk to prevent a head crash and resulting data loss upon impact. This device is included in the many common computer and consumer electronic products that are produced by a variety of manufacturers. It is also used in some data loggers to monitor handling operations for shipping containers. The length of time in free fall is used to calculate the height of drop and to estimate the shock to the package.
Motion input[edit]
Tri-axis Digital Accelerometer by Kionix, inside Motorola Xoom
Some smartphones, digital audio players and personal digital assistants contain accelerometers for user interface control; often the accelerometer is used to present landscape or portrait views of the device's screen, based on the way the device is being held. Apple has included an accelerometer in every generation of iPhone, iPad, and iPod touch, as well as in every iPod nano since the 4th generation. Along with orientation view adjustment, accelerometers in mobile devices can also be used as pedometers, in conjunction with specialized applications.[32]
Automatic Collision Notification (ACN) systems also use accelerometers in a system to call for help in event of a vehicle crash. Prominent ACN systems include OnStar AACN service, Ford Link's 911 Assist, Toyota's Safety Connect, Lexus Link, or BMW Assist. Many accelerometer-equipped smartphones also have ACN software available for download. ACN systems are activated by detecting crash-strength accelerations.
Accelerometers are used in vehicle Electronic stability control systems to measure the vehicle's actual movement. A computer compares the vehicle's actual movement to the driver's steering and throttle input. The stability control computer can selectively brake individual wheels and/or reduce engine power to minimize the difference between driver input and the vehicle's actual movement. This can help prevent the vehicle from spinning or rolling over.
Some pedometers use an accelerometer to more accurately measure the number of steps taken and distance traveled than a mechanical sensor can provide.
Nintendo's Wii video game console uses a controller called a Wii Remote that contains a three-axis accelerometer and was designed primarily for motion input. Users also have the option of buying an additional motion-sensitive attachment, the Nunchuk, so that motion input could be recorded from both of the user's hands independently. Is also used on the Nintendo 3DS system.
The Sony PlayStation 3 uses the DualShock 3 remote which uses a three axis accelerometer that can be used to make steering more realistic in racing games, such as MotorStorm and Burnout Paradise.
The Nokia 5500 sport features a 3D accelerometer that can be accessed from software. It is used for step recognition (counting) in a sport application, and for tap gesture recognition in the user interface. Tap gestures can be used for controlling the music player and the sport application, for example to change to next song by tapping through clothing when the device is in a pocket. Other uses for accelerometer in Nokia phones include Pedometer functionality in Nokia Sports Tracker. Some other devices provide the tilt sensing feature with a cheaper component, which is not a true accelerometer.
Sleep phase alarm clocks use accelerometric sensors to detect movement of a sleeper, so that it can wake the person when he/she is not in REM phase, in order to awaken the person more easily.
Sound recording[edit]
A microphone or eardrum is a membrane that responds to oscillations in air pressure. These oscillations cause acceleration, so accelerometers can be used to record sound.[33]. A 2012 study found that voices can be detected by smartphone accelerometers in 93% of typical daily situations.[34].
Conversely, carefully designed sounds can cause accelerometers to report false data. One study tested 20 models of (MEMS) smartphone accelerometers and found that a majority were susceptible to this attack.[35]
Orientation sensing[edit]
A number of 21st-century devices use accelerometers to align the screen depending on the direction the device is held (e.g., switching between portrait and landscape modes). Such devices include many tablet PCs and some smartphones and digital cameras. The Amida Simputer, a handheld Linux device launched in 2004, was the first commercial handheld to have a built-in accelerometer. It incorporated many gesture-based interactions using this accelerometer, including page-turning, zoom-in and zoom-out of images, change of portrait to landscape mode, and many simple gesture-based games.
As of January 2009, almost all new mobile phones and digital cameras contain at least a tilt sensor and sometimes an accelerometer for the purpose of auto image rotation, motion-sensitive mini-games, and correcting shake when taking photographs.
Image stabilization[edit]
Camcorders use accelerometers for image stabilization, either by moving optical elements to adjust the light path to the sensor to cancel out unintended motions or digitally shifting the image to smooth out detected motion. Some stills cameras use accelerometers for anti-blur capturing. The camera holds off capturing the image when the camera is moving. When the camera is still (if only for a millisecond, as could be the case for vibration), the image is captured. An example of the application of this technology is the Glogger VS2,[36] a phone application which runs on Symbian based phones with accelerometers such as the Nokia N96. Some digital cameras contain accelerometers to determine the orientation of the photo being taken and also for rotating the current picture when viewing.
Device integrity[edit]
Many laptops feature an accelerometer which is used to detect drops. If a drop is detected, the heads of the hard disk are parked to avoid data loss and possible head or disk damage by the ensuing shock.
Gravimetry[edit]
A gravimeter or gravitometer, is an instrument used in gravimetry for measuring the local gravitational field. A gravimeter is a type of accelerometer, except that accelerometers are susceptible to all vibrations including noise, that cause oscillatory accelerations. This is counteracted in the gravimeter by integral vibration isolation and signal processing. Though the essential principle of design is the same as in accelerometers, gravimeters are typically designed to be much more sensitive than accelerometers in order to measure very tiny changes within the Earth's gravity, of 1 g. In contrast, other accelerometers are often designed to measure 1000 g or more, and many perform multi-axial measurements. The constraints on temporal resolution are usually less for gravimeters, so that resolution can be increased by processing the output with a longer 'time constant'.
Types of accelerometer[edit]
- Bulk micromachined capacitive
- Bulk micromachined piezoelectric resistive
- Capacitive spring mass system base
- DC response
- Electromechanical servo (Servo Force Balance)
- High gravity
- High temperature
- Modally tuned impact hammers
- Null-balance
- Pendulous integrating gyroscopic accelerometer (PIGA)
- Quantum (Rubidium atom cloud, laser cooled)
- Seat pad accelerometers
- Shear mode accelerometer
- Surface acoustic wave (SAW)
- Surface micromachined capacitive (MEMS)
- Thermal (submicrometre CMOS process)
- Triaxial
- Vacuum diode with flexible anode[37]
- potentiometric type
- LVDT type accelerometer
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Accelerometers. |
References[edit]
- ^Tinder, Richard F. (2007). Relativistic Flight Mechanics and Space Travel: A Primer for Students, Engineers and Scientists. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. p. 33. ISBN978-1-59829-130-8.Extract of page 33
- ^ abRindler, W. (2013). Essential Relativity: Special, General, and Cosmological (illustrated ed.). Springer. p. 61. ISBN978-1-4757-1135-6.Extract of page 61
- ^Einstein, Albert (1920). '20'. Relativity: The Special and General Theory. New York: Henry Holt. p. 168. ISBN978-1-58734-092-5.
- ^Penrose, Roger (2005) [2004]. '17.4 The Principle of Equivalence'. The Road to Reality. New York: Knopf. pp. 393–394. ISBN978-0-470-08578-3.
- ^Doscher, James. 'Accelerometer Design and Applications'. Analog Devices. Archived from the original on 13 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-23.
- ^Mukherjee, Rahul; Basu, Joydeep; Mandal, Pradip; Guha, Prasanta Kumar (2017). 'A review of micromachined thermal accelerometers'. Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering. 27 (12): 123002. arXiv:1801.07297. Bibcode:2017JMiMi.27l3002M. doi:10.1088/1361-6439/aa964d.
- ^'Quake-Catcher Network – Downloads'. Quake-Catcher Network. Retrieved 15 July 2009.
If you have a Mac laptop , a Thinkpad (2003 or later), or a desktop with a USB sensor, you can download software to turn your computer into a Quake-Catcher Sensor
- ^Yoda et al. (2001) Journal of Experimental Biology204(4): 685–690
- ^Shepard, Emily L. C.; Wilson, Rory P.; Quintana, Flavio; Laich, Agustina Gómez; Liebsch, Nikolai; Albaredas, Diego A.; Halsey, Lewis G.; Gleiss, Adrian; Morgan, David T.; Myers, Andrew E.; Newman, Chris; Macdonald, David W. 'Identification of animal movement patterns using tri-axial accelerometry'(PDF). int-res.com. Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 2014-09-11.
- ^Kawabe et al. (2003) Fisheries Science 69 (5):959 – 965
- ^Wilson et al. (2006) Journal of Animal Ecology:75 (5):1081 – 1090
- ^Klubnik, Renard; Sullivan, Ron. 'Know the Age of your Pumps'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 9 January 2009.
- ^Wilcoxon Research. 'Guidance for mounting 4–20 mA vibration sensors on fans'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 12 September 2014. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
- ^Klubnik, Renard; Sullivan, Ron. 'Know the Health of your Pumps'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
- ^'Low Frequency Vibration Measurements on a Compressor Gear Set'(PDF). wilcoxon research. 14 November 2014. Archived from the original(PDF) on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
The gear set on a critical turbo-compressor was monitored with a standard industrial accelerometer at very low frequencies..
- ^'Gearbox tutorial'(PDF). Wilcoxon Research. 11 September 2014. Archived from the original(PDF) on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 9 January 2009.
- ^'Bearing Failure: Causes and Cures Bearing Failure: Causes and Cures'(PDF). wilcoxon.com. Archived from the original(PDF) on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
- ^O. Sircovich Saar 'Dynamics in the Practice of Structural Design' 2006 WIT Press ISBN1-84564-161-2
- ^The Contender 3 Episode 1 SPARQ testing ESPN
- ^'Welcome to GoHerman.com innovator of interactive personal training for fitness, – MARTIAL ARTS & MMA'. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
- ^Nosovitz, Dan. 'NFL Testing Helmets With Impact-Sensing Accelerometers for Concussion Analysis'. Popular Science. Archived from the original on 12 September 2014.
- ^Irvin Hussein López-Nava (2010). 'Towards Ubiquitous Acquisition and Processing of Gait Parameters'. Towards Ubiquitous Acquisition and Processing of Gait Parameters - Springer. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 6437. pp. 410–421. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-16761-4_36. ISBN978-3-642-16760-7.
- ^Lopez-Nava I. H. et Munoz-Melendez A. (2010). Towards ubiquitous acquisition and processing of gait parameters. In 9th Mexican International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Hidalgo, Mexico.
- ^'Vertical Speed Measurement, by Ed Hahn in sci.aeronautics.airliners, 1996-11-22'. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
- ^US patent 6640165, Hayward, Kirk W. and Stephenson, Larry G., 'Method and system of determining altitude of flying object', issued 2003-10-28
- ^'Dual Deployment'. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
- ^'PICO altimeter'. Archived from the original on 19 December 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
- ^'Design of an integrated strapdown guidance and control system for a tactical missile' WILLIAMS, D. E.RICHMAN, J.FRIEDLAND, B. (Singer Co., Kearfott Div., Little Falls, NJ) AIAA-1983-2169 IN: Guidance and Control Conference, Gatlinburg, TN, August 15–17, 1983, Collection of Technical Papers (A83-41659 19–63). New York, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1983, p. 57-66.
- ^Andrejašic, Matej (March 2008). MEMS ACCELEROMETERS(PDF). University of Ljubljana. Archived(PDF) from the original on 11 June 2014.
- ^Tilting trains shorten transit timeArchived June 4, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Memagazine.org. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
- ^Michael Randall. 'USGS – volcano monitoring'. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
- ^'These Apps Are Made For Walking - NYTimes.com'. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
- ^[1] Using MEMS Accelerometers as Acoustic Pickups in Musical Instruments
- ^[2] IEEE 2012, Speech Activity Detection using Accelerometer,Aleksandar Matic, et.al.
- ^[3] IEEE Spectrum Smartphone Accelerometers Can Be Fooled by Sound Waves.
- ^'Glogger'. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
- ^'Mullard: DDR100 Accelerometer Double Diode data sheet'(PDF). Retrieved 7 May 2013.
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Accelerometer&oldid=899777806'
Alfred Stieglitz's photograph The Steerage (1907) was an early work of artistic modernism, and considered by many historians to be the most important photograph ever made.[1] Stieglitz was notable for introducing fine art photography into museum collections.
Fine-art photography is photography created in accordance with the vision of the artist as a photographer, using photography as a medium to bring something to life that only lives in the artist's mind. Simply capturing what one sees in an artistic way is the art of photography and not creating fine art. The goal of fine-art photography is to express an idea, a message, or an emotion. This stands in contrast to representational photography, such as photojournalism, which provides a documentary visual account of specific subjects and events, literally representing objective reality rather than the subjective intent of the photographer; and commercial photography, the primary focus of which is to advertise products or services.
- 1History
- 6List of definitions
- 8References
History[edit]
Building Construction Illustrated 4th Edition Pdf Free Download 2017
Depiction of nudity has been one of the dominating themes in fine-art photography. Nude composition 19 from 1988 by Jaan Künnap.
Invention through 1940s[edit]
One photography historian claimed that 'the earliest exponent of 'Fine Art' or composition photography was John Edwin Mayall, 'who exhibited daguerrotypes illustrating the Lord's Prayer in 1851'.[2] Successful attempts to make fine art photography can be traced to Victorian era practitioners such as Julia Margaret Cameron, Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, and Oscar Gustave Rejlander and others. In the U.S. F. Holland Day, Alfred Stieglitz and Edward Steichen were instrumental in making photography a fine art, and Stieglitz was especially notable in introducing it into museum collections.
In the UK as recently as 1960, photography was not really recognised as a Fine Art. Dr S.D.Jouhar said, when he formed the Photographic Fine Art Association at that time - 'At the moment photography is not generally recognized as anything more than a craft. In the USA photography has been openly accepted as Fine Art in certain official quarters. It is shown in galleries and exhibitions as an Art. There is not corresponding recognition in this country. The London Salon shows pictorial photography, but it is not generally understood as an art. Whether a work shows aesthetic qualities or not it is designated 'Pictorial Photography' which is a very ambiguous term. The photographer himself must have confidence in his work and in its dignity and aesthetic value, to force recognition as an Art rather than a Craft'
Until the late 1970s several genres predominated, such as nudes, portraits, and natural landscapes (exemplified by Ansel Adams). Breakthrough 'star' artists in the 1970s and 80s, such as Sally Mann, Robert Mapplethorpe, Robert Farber and Cindy Sherman, still relied heavily on such genres, although seeing them with fresh eyes. Others investigated a snapshot aesthetic approach.
American organizations, such as the Aperture Foundation and the Museum of Modern Art, have done much to keep photography at the forefront of the fine arts. MOMA's establishment of a department of photography in 1940 and appointment of Beaumont Newhall as its first curator are often cited as institutional confirmation of photography's status as an art.[3]
1950s to present day[edit]
Andreas Gursky, Shanghai, 2000, C-print mounted to plexiglass, 119 x 81 inches
There is now a trend toward a careful staging and lighting of the picture, rather than hoping to 'discover' it ready-made. Photographers such as Gregory Crewdson, and Jeff Wall are noted for the quality of their staged pictures. Additionally, new technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in full spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions.
As printing technologies have improved since around 1980, a photographer's art prints reproduced in a finely-printed limited-edition book have now become an area of strong interest to collectors. This is because books usually have high production values, a short print run, and their limited market means they are almost never reprinted. The collector's market in photography books by individual photographers is developing rapidly.
According to Art Market Trends 2004 (PDF link) 7,000 photographs were sold in auction rooms in 2004, and photographs averaged a 7.6 percent annual price rise from 1994 and 2004.[not in citation given] Around 80 percent were sold in the United States. Of course, auction sales only record a fraction of total private sales. There is now a thriving collectors' market for which the most sought-after art photographers will produce high quality archival prints in strictly limited editions. Attempts by online art retailers to sell fine photography to the general public alongside prints of paintings have had mixed results, with strong sales coming only from the traditional 'big names' of photography such as Ansel Adams.
In addition to the 'digital movement' towards manipulation, filtering, or resolution changes, some fine artists deliberately seek a 'naturalistic,' including 'natural lighting' as a value in itself. Sometimes the art work as in the case of Gerhard Richter consists of a photographic image that has been subsequently painted over with oil paints and/or contains some political or historical significance beyond the image itself. The existence of 'photographically-projected painting' now blurs the line between painting and photography which traditionally was absolute.
Framing and print size[edit]
Until the mid-1950s it was widely considered vulgar and pretentious to frame a photograph for a gallery exhibition. Prints were usually simply pasted onto blockboard or plywood, or given a white border in the darkroom and then pinned at the corners onto display boards. Prints were thus shown without any glass reflections obscuring them. Steichen's famous The Family of Man exhibition was unframed, the pictures pasted to panels. Even as late as 1966 Bill Brandt's MoMA show was unframed, with simple prints pasted to thin plywood. From the mid-1950s to about 2000 most gallery exhibitions had prints behind glass. Since about 2000 there has been a noticeable move toward once again showing contemporary gallery prints on boards and without glass. In addition, throughout the twentieth century, there was a noticeable increase in the size of prints.
Ansel Adams' The Tetons and the Snake River (1942).
Politics[edit]
Fine art photography is created primarily as an expression of the artist’s vision, but as a byproduct it has also been important in advancing certain causes. The work of Ansel Adams in Yosemite and Yellowstone provides an example. Adams is one of the most widely recognized fine art photographers of the 20th century, and was an avid promoter of conservation. While his primary focus was on photography as art, some of his work raised public awareness of the beauty of the Sierra Nevada and helped to build political support for their protection.
Such photography has also had effects in the area of censorship law and free expression, due to its concern with the nude body.
Overlap with other genres[edit]
Although fine art photography may overlap with many other genres of photography, the overlaps with fashion photography and photojournalism merit special attention.
In 1996 it was stated that there had been a 'recent blurring of lines between commercial illustrative photography and fine art photography,' especially in the area of fashion.[4] Evidence for the overlap of fine art photography and fashion photography includes lectures,[5] exhibitions,[6][7][8] trade fairs such as Art Basel Miami Beach,[9] and books.[4][10]
Photojournalism and fine art photography overlapped beginning in the 'late 1960s and 1970s, when.. news photographers struck up liaisons with art photography and painting'.[11] In 1974 the International Center of Photography opened, with emphases on both 'humanitarian photojournalism' and 'art photography'.[11] By 1987, 'pictures that were taken on assignments for magazines and newspapers now regularly reappear[ed] - in frames - on the walls of museums and galleries'.[12]
New smartphone apps such as Snapchat sometimes are used for fine-art photography.[13]
Attitudes of artists in other fields[edit]
The reactions of artists and writers have contributed significantly to perceptions of photography as fine art. Prominent painters, such as Francis Bacon and Pablo Picasso, have asserted their interest in the medium:
I have discovered photography. Now I can kill myself. I have nothing else to learn.
— Pablo Picasso
I have always been very interested in photography. I have looked at far more photographs than I have paintings. Because their reality is stronger than reality itself.
Noted authors, similarly, have responded to the artistic potential of photography:
..it does seem to me that Capa has proved beyond all doubt that the camera need not be a cold mechanical device. Like the pen, it is as good as the man who uses it. It can be the extension of mind and heart..
— John Steinbeck
List of definitions[edit]
Here is a list of definitions of the related terms 'art photography', 'artistic photography', and 'fine art photography'.
In reference books[edit]
Among the definitions that can be found in reference books are:
- 'Art photography': 'Photography that is done as a fine art -- that is, done to express the artist's perceptions and emotions and to share them with others'.[14]
- 'Fine art photography': 'A picture that is produced for sale or display rather than one that is produced in response to a commercial commission'.[15]
- 'Fine art photography': 'The production of images to fulfill the creative vision of a photographer. .. Synonymous with art photography'.[16]
- 'Art photography': A definition 'is elusive,' but 'when photographers refer to it, they have in mind the photographs seen in magazines such as American Photo, Popular Photography, and Print, and in salons and exhibitions. Art (or artful) photography is salable.'.[17]
- 'Artistic photography': 'A frequently used but somewhat vague term. The idea underlying it is that the producer of a given picture has aimed at something more than a merely realistic rendering of the subject, and has attempted to convey a personal impression'.[18]
- 'Fine art photography': Also called 'decor photography,' or 'photo decor,' this 'involves selling large photos.. that can be used as wall art'.[17]
In scholarly articles[edit]
Among the definitions that can be found in scholarly articles are:
- In 1961, Dr S. D.Jouhar founded the Photographic Fine Art Association, and he was its chairman. Their definition of Fine Art was “Creating images that evoke emotion by a photographic process in which one's mind and imagination are freely but competently exercised.”[19]
- Two studies by Christopherson in 1974 defined 'fine art photographers' as 'those persons who create and distribute photographs specifically as 'art.'[20][21]
- A 1986 ethnographic and historical study by Schwartz did not directly define 'fine art photography' but did compare it with 'camera club photography'.[22] It found that fine art photography 'is tied to other media' such as painting; 'responds to its own history and traditions' (as opposed to 'aspir[ing] to the same achievements made by their predecessors'); 'has its own vocabulary'; 'conveys ideas' (e.g., 'concern with form supersedes concern with subject matter'); 'is innovative'; 'is personal'; 'is a lifestyle'; and 'participates in the world of commerce.'[22]
On the World Wide Web[edit]
Among the definitions that can be found on the World Wide Web are:
- The Library of CongressSubject Headings use 'art photography' as 'photography of art,' and 'artistic photography' (i.e., 'Photography, artistic') as 'photography as a fine art, including aesthetic theory'.[23]
- The Art & Architecture Thesaurus states that 'fine art photography' (preferred term) or 'art photography' or 'artistic photography' is 'the movement in England and the United States, from around 1890 into the early 20th century, which promoted various aesthetic approaches. Historically, has sometimes been applied to any photography whose intention is aesthetic, as distinguished from scientific, commercial, or journalistic; for this meaning, use 'photography'.[24]
- Definitions of 'fine art photography' on photographers' static Web pages vary from 'the subset of fine art that is created with a camera'[25] to 'limited-reproduction photography, using materials and techniques that will outlive the artist'.[26]
- On the concept of limited-reproduction, in the French legal system, there is a very precise legal definition regarding fine art photography being considered as an artwork. The tax code states they, are considered as artworks the photographs taken by the artist, printed by him/herself or under his/her control, signed and numbered in maximum thirty copies, including all sizes and mountings.[27]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^Winters, Dan (2014). Road to Seeing. New Riders. pp. 563–564. ISBN978-0-13-315420-7.
- ^Gernsheim, Helmut. Creative photography: aesthetic trends 1839-1960. New York: Dover, 1991. ISBN0-486-26750-4
- ^Phillips, Christopher (Autumn 1982). 'The Judgment Seat of Photography'. October. 22. doi:10.2307/778362. JSTOR778362.
- ^ abBryant, Eric. Review of Fashion: Photography in the Nineties. Library Journal, February 15, 1997, p.131.
- ^Catherine Atherton: The fine art of fashion photography. From a talk given at the Museum of Modern Art by the senior lecturer in art, publishing and music at Oxford Brookes University.The Independent, June 12, 2001. Retrieved October 21, 2008.
- ^Fashioning fiction in photography since 1990. Museum of Modern Art, April 16 - June 28, 2004. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
- ^Naves, Mario (April 23, 2004). 'Striking poses: is fashion photography art?'. Slate. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
- ^Click chic: the fine art of fashion photography. School of Visual Arts, September 6, 2007 - October 6, 2007. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
- ^Trebay, Guy (December 6, 2007). 'Work with me, baby'. The New York Times. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
- ^The idealizing vision: the art of fashion photography. New York: Aperture Foundation. 1991. ISBN0-89381-462-8.
- ^ abGoldberg, Vicki. Picture this - magazine photography, in just a few decades, has changed the way life itself is regarded. Life magazine, April 15, 1999.
- ^Grundberg, Andy (April 12, 1987). 'Art; photojournalism lays claim to the realm of esthetics'. The New York Times. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
- ^'While I Watch My Father Die: Photography Exhibition on Snapchat Explores Memory, Emotional Vanishing | Fine Art Photography, Commissions, NYC Teaching Tutorials Steve Giovinco'. stevegiovinco.com. Retrieved 2017-01-10.
- ^McDarrah, Gloria S., et al. The photography encyclopedia. New York: Schirmer, 1999. ISBN0-02-865025-5
- ^Hope, Terry. Fine art photography: creating beautiful images for sale and display. Mies, Switzerland: RotoVision, 2003. ISBN2-88046-724-1
- ^Lynch-Johnt, Barbara, and Michelle Perkins. Illustrated dictionary of photography: the professional's guide to terms and techniques. Buffalo, NY: Amherst Media, 2008. ISBN978-1-58428-222-8
- ^ abEngh, Rohn. Sell & re-sell your photos, 5th ed. Cincinnati, Ohio: Writer's Digest Books, 2003. ISBN1-58297-176-5
- ^Jones, Bernard E. Cassell's cyclopaedia of photography. New York: Arno, 1973. ISBN0-405-04922-6
- ^Jouhar, Sultan (October 1964). 'The Work of Dr. Jouhar'. The Royal Photographic Society Journal. 104 (10): 261.
- ^Christopherson, Richard W. Making Art With Machines: Photography's Institutional Inadequacies. Urban Life and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 1, April 1974, pages 3-34.
- ^Christopherson, Richard W. From Folk Art To Fine Art: A Transformation in the Meaning of Photographic Work. Urban Life and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 2, July 1974, pages 123-157.
- ^ abSchwartz, Dona. Camera clubs and fine art photography: the social construction of an elite code. Originally published in Urban Life, vol. 15, no. 2 (July 1986), pp.165-195.
- ^Library of Congress. Authority headings search. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
- ^Getty Research Institute. Art photography. Art & Architecture Thesaurus Online. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
- ^Beck, Stephen G. What Is Fine Art Photography? Retrieved August 6, 2008.
- ^Steinman, Jan. Bytesmiths Editions Newsletter December 2000. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
- ^'What is an artwork? - Art Photo Limited - Photography - Artwork'. Art Photo Limited. Retrieved 2019-04-19.
Further reading[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Art Photography. |
- Thompson, Jerry L. Truth and photography: notes on looking and photographing. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003. ISBN1-56663-539-X
- Bright, Susan. Art photography now. New York: Aperture, 2005. ISBN1-931788-91-X
- Peres, Michael R. ed. The Focal encyclopedia of photography: digital imaging, theory and applications, history, and science. 4th edition. Amsterdam & Boston: Elsevier/Focal Press, 2007. ISBN978-0-240-80740-9
- Rosenblum, Naomi. A world history of photography. 4th edition. New York: Abbeville Press, 2007. ISBN978-0-7892-0937-5
- Fodde, Marco. Fotografia Fine Art. 1st edition. Milano: Apogeo La Feltrinelli, 2012. ISBN978-88-503-1397-6
External links[edit]
- The 1896 Washington Salon & Art Photographic Exhibition An exhibition in Washington, D.C., more than a century ago played a major role in the establishment and acceptance of art photography in America (from the National Museum of American History).
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